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| === Protests and Statue Toppling === | | === Protests and Statue Toppling === |
| 20,000 protesters on 23 October gathered around a statue of József Bem - a national hero of Poland and Hungary as Péter Veres, president of the Writers' Union, read a manifesto to the crowd. Demanding independence, democratic socialism, joining the UN and civil liberties for all people. AfterwardsIts claims were Hungary's independence from all foreign powers; a political system based on democratic socialism (land reform and public ownership in the economy); Hungary joining the United Nations; and all freedom rights for the citizens of Hungary.<sup>[46]</sup> After reading out the proclamation, the crowd began to chant a censored patriotic poem, the National Song (Hu: ''Nemzeti dal''), | | 20,000 protesters on 23 October gathered around a statue of József Bem - a national hero of Poland and Hungary as Péter Veres, president of the Writers' Union, read a manifesto to the crowd. Demanding independence, democratic socialism, joining the UN and civil liberties for all people. Afterwards the crowd began to chant songs and people waved Hungarian flags and tore communist emblems down. After being condemned by the government over radio, the protesters toppled a 9.1m high statue of Stalin, with Hungarian flags being placed in his boots. |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>with the refrain: "This we swear, this we swear, that we will no longer
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>be slaves." Someone in the crowd cut out the Communist coat of arms from the Hungarian flag, leaving a distinctive hole in the middle of it, and others quickly followed suit.<sup>[47][''page range too broad'']</sup>
| |
|
| |
|
| Afterwards, most of the crowd crossed the River Danube to join demonstrators outside the Parliament Building. By 18:00, the multitude had swollen to more than 200,000 people;<sup>[48]</sup> the demonstration was spirited, but peaceful.<sup>[49]</sup>
| | === Mutiny === |
| | Protesters gathered around the headquarters of Hungarian Radio, secret police responded by throwing tear gas at the crowd and shooting live ammunition into the protest. The secret police hid weapons an ambulance and tried to resupply, but the crowd stopped them from entering. Soldiers were sent to crush the protest, but they defected and tore off the red starts from their caps. Soldiers began to arm the crowd with supplies from military depots, police cars were set on fire and government symbols were vandalised. |
|
| |
|
| Placing of Hungarian flag into remains of dismantled Stalin statue
| | === Soviet Intervention === |
| | The Hungarian government requested assistance of the USSR, who sent the Red Army to protect the Hungarian Parliament and bridges across the country. Rebels barricaded numerous neighbourhoods, captured Soviet tanks, seized the radio headquarters and attacked secret police who were themselves attacking peaceful protesters outside of a newspaper office. There were reports of Soviet soldiers also showing open sympathy for the rebels. Soviet soldiers also accidentally fought in gunfights against the Hungarian secret police when they tried to shoot protesters, as they (Soviet soldiers) assumed they were the targets. |
|
| |
|
| At 20:00, the first secretary of the ruling party, Ernő Gerő broadcast a speech condemning the writers' and students' demands.<sup>[49]</sup> Angered by Gerő's hard-line rejection, some demonstrators decided to carry out one of their demands, the removal of Stalin's 30-foot-high (9.1 m) bronze statue that was erected in 1951 on the site of a former church, which was demolished to make room for the monument.<sup>[50]</sup> By 21:30, the statue was toppled and the crowd celebrated by placing Hungarian flags into Stalin's boots, which was all that was left of the statue.<sup>[49]</sup>
| | === Government Collapse === |
| | Most of the Hungarian military remained neutral in the conflict, and numerous parts defected. Although there were a few dozen cases of rebels and the military fighting, and in one case a fighter jet bombed a protest, killing 17 people. Soon, the government collapsed and some rebels began to attack Soviet troops. |
|
| |
|
| At about the same time, a large crowd gathered at the headquarters of the Hungarian Radio,
| | === White Terror and Civil War === |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>which was heavily guarded by the ÁVH. The flash point was reached as a
| | Some rebels began to carry out torture and executions of communists, secret police and military personnel. This soon led to a civil war between communists (themselves supported by factory workers and anti-fascist [[World War II]] veterans) and anti-communist rebels, with the Soviet army acting as a third faction. Workers' councils and popular assemblies spread across the country and rebels fought tanks with molotov cocktails. Anti-communist rebels destroyed public red stars, war memorials, executed communists and Soviet-sympathisers and communist books were burned. Soviet commanders often negotiated local cease-fires with the revolutionaries. |
| delegation attempting to broadcast their demands was detained. The crowd
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>outside the building grew increasingly unruly as rumours spread that
| |
| the members of the delegation had been killed. Tear gas was thrown from the upper windows and the ÁVH opened fire on the crowd, killing many.<sup>[51]</sup> The ÁVH tried to re-supply itself by hiding arms inside an ambulance car,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>but the crowd detected the ruse and intercepted it. Soldiers were sent
| |
| to the spot relieving the security forces but they tore off the red
| |
| stars from their caps and sided with the crowd.<sup>[47][''page range too broad''][51]</sup> Provoked by the ÁVH attack, protesters reacted violently. Police cars were set ablaze, guns were seized from military depots and distributed to the mass while symbols of the regime were vandalised.<sup>[52]</sup>
| |
| | |
| === Fighting spreads, government falls === | |
| During
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>the night of 23 October, Hungarian Working People's Party Secretary
| |
| Ernő Gerő requested Soviet military intervention "to suppress a
| |
| demonstration that was reaching an ever greater and unprecedented
| |
| scale".<sup>[36]</sup> The Soviet leadership had formulated contingency plans for intervention in Hungary several months before.<sup>[53]</sup> By 02:00 on 24 October, acting in accordance with orders of Georgy Zhukov, the Soviet defence minister, Soviet tanks entered Budapest.<sup>[54]</sup>
| |
| | |
| By noon, on 24 October, Soviet tanks were stationed outside the
| |
| Parliament, and Soviet soldiers guarded key bridges and crossroads.
| |
| Armed revolutionaries quickly set up barricades to defend Budapest, and
| |
| were reported to have already captured some Soviet tanks by mid-morning.<sup>[47][''page range too broad'']</sup> That day, Imre Nagy replaced András Hegedüs as Prime Minister.<sup>[55]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>On the radio, Nagy called for an end to violence and promised to
| |
| initiate political reforms that had been shelved three years earlier.
| |
| The population continued to arm itself as sporadic violence erupted.<sup>[56]</sup>
| |
| | |
| March of protesters on 25 October
| |
| | |
| Armed protesters seized the radio building. At the offices of the Communist newspaper ''Szabad Nép'' unarmed demonstrators were fired upon by ÁVH guards who were then driven out as armed demonstrators arrived.<sup>[56]</sup> At this point, the revolutionaries' wrath focused on the ÁVH;<sup>[57]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Soviet military units were not yet fully engaged, and there were
| |
| reports of some Soviet troops showing open sympathy for the
| |
| demonstrators.<sup>[58]</sup>
| |
| | |
| On 25 October, a mass of protesters gathered in front of the
| |
| Parliament Building. ÁVH units began shooting into the crowd from the
| |
| rooftops of neighbouring buildings.<sup>[59][60]</sup> Some Soviet soldiers returned fire on the ÁVH, mistakenly believing that they were the targets of the shooting.<sup>[47][''page range too broad''][61]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Supplied by arms taken from the ÁVH or given by Hungarian soldiers who
| |
| joined the uprising, some in the crowd started shooting back.<sup>[47][''page range too broad''][59]</sup>
| |
| | |
| During this time, the Hungarian Army was divided as the central
| |
| command structure disintegrated with the rising pressures from the
| |
| protests on the government. The majority of Hungarian military units in
| |
| Budapest and the countryside remained uninvolved, as the local
| |
| commanders generally avoided using force against the protesters and
| |
| revolutionaries.<sup>[62][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>From 24 to 29 October, however, there were 71 cases of armed clashes
| |
| between the army and the populace in fifty communities, ranging from the
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>defence of attacks on civilian and military objectives to fighting with
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>insurgents depending on the commanding officer.<sup>[62][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| | |
| One example is in the town of Kecskemét on 26 October, where
| |
| demonstrations in front of the office of State Security and the local
| |
| jail led to military action by the Third Corps under the orders of Major
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>General Lajos Gyurkó, in which seven protesters were shot and several
| |
| of the organizers were arrested. In another case, a fighter jet strafed a
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>protest in the town of Tiszakécske, killing 17 people and wounding 117.<sup>[62][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| | |
| The attacks at the Parliament forced the collapse of the government.<sup>[63]</sup> Communist First Secretary Ernő Gerő and former Prime Minister András Hegedüs fled to the Soviet Union; Imre Nagy became Prime Minister and János Kádár First Secretary of the Communist Party.<sup>[64]</sup> Revolutionaries began an aggressive offensive against Soviet troops and the remnants of the ÁVH.
| |
| | |
| Body of executed Party member at Central Committee of the Communist Party
| |
| | |
| Units led by Béla Király,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>after attacking the building of the Central Committee of the Communist
| |
| Party, executed dozens of suspected communists, state security members,
| |
| and military personnel. Photographs showed victims with signs of | |
| torture. On 30 October, Király's forces attacked the Central Committee
| |
| of the Communist Party building.<sup>[65]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Hungarian Communist politician János Berecz, in his
| |
| government-sponsored "white book" about the Revolution, claimed that the
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>rebels detained thousands of people, and that thousands more had their
| |
| names on death lists. According to his book, in the city of Kaposvár 64 persons including 13 army officers were detained on 31 October.<sup>[66]</sup>
| |
| | |
| In Budapest and other areas—according to Berecz and other
| |
| Kádár-era sources—the Hungarian Communist committees organised defence.
| |
| In Csepel,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>an area of Budapest, some 250 Communists defended the Csepel Iron and
| |
| Steel Works. On 27 October, army units were brought in to secure Csepel
| |
| and restore order. They later withdrew on 29 October, after which the
| |
| rebels seized control of the area. Communists in Angyalföld,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>also part of Budapest, led more than 350 armed workers and 380
| |
| servicemen from the Láng Factory. Anti-fascist resistance veterans from
| |
| World War II participated in the offensive through which the offices of
| |
| the ''Szabad Nép'' newspaper were recaptured. In the countryside, defence measures were taken by pro-Communist forces. In the county of Békés County, in and around the town of Szarvas, the armed guards of the Communist Party were in control throughout.<sup>[67]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Hungarian revolutionaries, beginning of November 1956
| |
| | |
| As the Hungarian resistance fought Soviet tanks using Molotov cocktails in the narrow streets of Budapest, revolutionary councils arose nationwide, assumed local governmental authority and called for general strikes. Public Communist symbols such as red stars
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and Soviet war memorials were removed, and Communist books were burned.
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Spontaneous revolutionary militias arose, such as the 400-man group
| |
| loosely led by József Dudás, which attacked or murdered Soviet sympathisers and ÁVH members.<sup>[68]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Soviet units fought primarily in Budapest; elsewhere the countryside
| |
| was largely quiet. One armoured division stationed in Budapest,
| |
| commanded by Pál Maléter, instead opted to join the insurgents. Soviet commanders often negotiated local cease-fires with the revolutionaries.<sup>[69]</sup>
| |
| | |
| In some regions, Soviet forces managed to quell revolutionary
| |
| activity. In Budapest, the Soviets were eventually fought to a
| |
| stand-still and hostilities began to wane. Hungarian general Béla Király,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>freed from a life sentence for political offences and acting with the
| |
| support of the Nagy government, sought to restore order by unifying
| |
| elements of the police, army and insurgent groups into a National Guard.<sup>[70]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>A ceasefire was arranged on 28 October, and by 30 October most Soviet
| |
| troops had withdrawn from Budapest to garrisons in the Hungarian
| |
| countryside.<sup>[71]</sup>
| |
| | |
| === Interlude ===
| |
| Fighting
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>ceased between 28 October and 4 November, as many Hungarians believed
| |
| that Soviet military units were withdrawing from Hungary.<sup>[72]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>According to post-revolution Communist sources, there were
| |
| approximately 213 Hungarian Working People's Party members lynched or
| |
| executed during this period.<sup>[73]</sup>
| |
| | |
| ==== New government ====
| |
| Flyer. Imre Nagy, Head of government – 1956.10.27
| |
| | |
| The rapid spread of the uprising in the streets of Budapest and the
| |
| abrupt fall of the Gerő–Hegedüs government left the new national
| |
| leadership surprised, and at first disorganised. Nagy, a loyal party
| |
| reformer described as possessing "only modest political skills",<sup>[74]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>initially appealed to the public for calm and a return to the old
| |
| order. Yet Nagy, the only remaining Hungarian leader with credibility in
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>both the eyes of the public and the Soviets, "at long last concluded
| |
| that a popular uprising rather than a counter-revolution was taking
| |
| place".<sup>[75]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>At 13:20 on 28 October, Nagy announced an immediate and general
| |
| cease-fire over the radio and, on behalf of the new national government,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>declared the following:
| |
| | |
| * that the government would assess the uprising not as counter-revolutionary but as a "great, national and democratic event"
| |
| * an unconditional general ceasefire and amnesty for those who participated in the uprising; negotiations with the insurgents
| |
| * the dissolution of the ÁVH
| |
| * the establishment of a national guard
| |
| * the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from Budapest and negotiations for the withdrawal of all Soviet forces from Hungary
| |
| On 1 November, in a radio address to the Hungarian people, Nagy formally declared Hungary's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact as well as Hungary's stance of neutrality.<sup>[62][''page needed''][76][77][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Because it held office only ten days, the National Government had
| |
| little chance to clarify its policies in detail. However, newspaper
| |
| editorials at the time stressed that Hungary should be a neutral,
| |
| multi-party social democracy.<sup>[78]</sup> About 8000 political prisoners were released, most notably Cardinal József Mindszenty.<sup>[79][80]</sup> Political parties that were previously banned, such as the Independent Smallholders and the National Peasant Party (under the name "Petőfi Party"),<sup>[81]</sup> reappeared to join the coalition.<sup>[82]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Crowd cheers Hungarian troops in Budapest
| |
| | |
| During this time, in 1,170 communities across Hungary there were 348
| |
| cases in which revolutionary councils and protesters dismissed employees
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>of the local administrative councils, 312 cases in which they sacked
| |
| the persons in charge, and 215 cases in which they burned the local
| |
| administrative files and records. In addition, in 681 communities
| |
| demonstrators damaged symbols of Soviet authority such as red stars,
| |
| Stalin or Lenin statues; 393 in which they damaged Soviet war memorials,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and 122 communities in which book burnings took place.<sup>[14][62][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| | |
| Local revolutionary councils formed throughout Hungary,<sup>[83][84][85][86]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>generally without involvement from the preoccupied National Government
| |
| in Budapest, and assumed various responsibilities of local government
| |
| from the defunct Communist party.<sup>[87]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>By 30 October, these councils had been officially sanctioned by the
| |
| Hungarian Working People's Party, and the Nagy government asked for
| |
| their support as "autonomous, democratic local organs formed during the
| |
| Revolution".<sup>[87]</sup> Likewise, workers' councils
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>were established at industrial plants and mines, and many unpopular
| |
| regulations such as production norms were eliminated. The workers'
| |
| councils strove to manage the enterprise while protecting workers'
| |
| interests, thus establishing a socialist economy free of rigid party
| |
| control.<sup>[88]</sup> Local control by the councils was not always bloodless; in Debrecen, Győr, Sopron, Mosonmagyaróvár
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and other cities, crowds of demonstrators were fired upon by the ÁVH,
| |
| with many lives lost. The ÁVH were disarmed, often by force, in many
| |
| cases assisted by the local police.<sup>[87]</sup>
| |
| | |
| In total there were approximately 2,100 local revolutionary and
| |
| workers councils with over 28,000 members. These councils held a
| |
| combined conference in Budapest, deciding to end the nationwide labour
| |
| strikes and resume work on 5 November, with the more important councils
| |
| sending delegates to the Parliament to assure the Nagy government of
| |
| their support.<sup>[62][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| | |
| ==== Soviet perspective ====
| |
| On 24 October, the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (the Politburo) discussed the political upheavals in Poland and Hungary. A hard-line faction led by Molotov was pushing for intervention, but Khrushchev and Marshal Zhukov
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>were initially opposed. A delegation in Budapest reported that the
| |
| situation was not as dire as had been portrayed. Khrushchev stated that
| |
| he believed that Party Secretary Ernő Gerő's request for intervention on
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>23 October indicated that the Hungarian Party still held the confidence
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>of the Hungarian public. In addition, he saw the protests not as an
| |
| ideological struggle, but as popular discontent over unresolved basic
| |
| economic and social issues.<sup>[36]</sup> The concurrent Suez Crisis
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>was another reason to not intervene; as Khrushchev said on 28 October,
| |
| it would be a mistake to imitate the "real mess" of the French and
| |
| British.<sup>[89]</sup>
| |
| | |
| After some debate,<sup>[90][91]</sup> the Presidium on 30 October decided not to remove the new Hungarian government. Even Marshal Georgy Zhukov
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>said: "We should withdraw troops from Budapest, and if necessary
| |
| withdraw from Hungary as a whole. This is a lesson for us in the
| |
| military-political sphere." They adopted a ''Declaration of the
| |
| Government of the USSR on the Principles of Development and Further
| |
| Strengthening of Friendship and Cooperation between the Soviet Union and
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>other Socialist States'', which was issued the next day. This
| |
| document proclaimed: "The Soviet Government is prepared to enter into
| |
| the appropriate negotiations with the government of the Hungarian
| |
| People's Republic and other members of the Warsaw Treaty on the question
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>of the presence of Soviet troops on the territory of Hungary."<sup>[92]</sup> Thus for a brief moment it looked like there could be a peaceful solution.
| |
| | |
| Damaged Party headquarters on Köztársaság tér
| |
| | |
| On 30 October, armed protesters attacked the ÁVH detachment guarding
| |
| the Budapest Hungarian Working People's Party headquarters on
| |
| Köztársaság tér (Republic Square), incited by rumours of prisoners held
| |
| there and the earlier shootings of demonstrators by the ÁVH in the city
| |
| of Mosonmagyaróvár.<sup>[87][93][94]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Over 20 ÁVH officers were killed, some of them lynched by the mob.
| |
| Hungarian army tanks sent to rescue the party headquarters mistakenly
| |
| bombarded the building.<sup>[94]</sup> The head of the Budapest party committee, Imre Mező, was wounded and later died.<sup>[95][96]</sup> Scenes from Republic Square were shown on Soviet newsreels a few hours later.<sup>[97]</sup> Revolutionary leaders in Hungary condemned the incident and appealed for calm, and the mob violence soon died down,<sup>[98]</sup> but images of the victims were nevertheless used as propaganda by various Communist organs.<sup>[96]</sup>
| |
| | |
| On 31 October the Soviet leaders decided to reverse their
| |
| decision from the previous day. There is disagreement among historians
| |
| whether Hungary's declaration to exit the Warsaw Pact
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>caused the second Soviet intervention. Minutes of 31 October meeting of
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>the Presidium record that the decision to intervene militarily was
| |
| taken one day before Hungary declared its neutrality and withdrawal from
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>the Warsaw Pact.<sup>[99]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Historians who deny that Hungarian neutrality—or other factors such as
| |
| Western inaction in Hungary or perceived Western weakness due to the
| |
| Suez crisis—caused the intervention state that the Soviet decision was
| |
| based solely on the rapid loss of Communist control in Hungary.<sup>[89]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>However, some Russian historians who are not advocates of the Communist
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>era maintain that the Hungarian declaration of neutrality caused the
| |
| Kremlin to intervene a second time.<sup>[100]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Two days earlier, on 30 October, when Soviet Politburo representatives Anastas Mikoyan and Mikhail Suslov
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>were in Budapest, Nagy had hinted that neutrality was a long-term
| |
| objective for Hungary, and that he was hoping to discuss this matter
| |
| with the leaders in the Kremlin. This information was passed on to
| |
| Moscow by Mikoyan and Suslov.<sup>[101][102]</sup> At that time, Khrushchev was in Stalin's dacha,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>considering his options regarding Hungary. One of his speech writers
| |
| later said that the declaration of neutrality was an important factor in
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>his subsequent decision to support intervention.<sup>[103]</sup> In addition, some Hungarian leaders of the revolution as well as students had called for their country's withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact much earlier, and this may have influenced Soviet decision making.<sup>[104]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Several other key events alarmed the Presidium and cemented the interventionists' position:<sup>[105][106]</sup>
| |
| | |
| * Simultaneous movements towards multi-party parliamentary
| |
| democracy, and a democratic national council of workers, which could
| |
| "lead towards a capitalist state". Both movements challenged the
| |
| pre-eminence of the Soviet Communist Party in Eastern Europe and perhaps
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Soviet hegemony itself. Hannah Arendt considered the councils "the only free and acting soviets (councils) in existence anywhere in the world".<sup>[107][108]</sup>
| |
| * Khrushchev stated that many in the Communist Party would not understand a failure to respond with force in Hungary. Destalinisation
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>had alienated the more conservative elements of the Party, who were
| |
| alarmed at threats to Soviet influence in Eastern Europe. On 17 June
| |
| 1953, workers in East Berlin had staged an uprising, demanding the resignation of the government of the German Democratic Republic. This was quickly and violently put down with the help of the Soviet military, with 84 killed and wounded and 700 arrested.<sup>[109]</sup> In June 1956, in Poznań, Poland, an anti-government workers' revolt had been suppressed by the Polish security forces with between 57<sup>[110]</sup> and 78<sup>[111][112]</sup> deaths and led to the installation of a less Soviet-controlled government.
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Additionally, by late October, unrest was noticed in some regional
| |
| areas of the Soviet Union: while this unrest was minor, it was
| |
| intolerable.
| |
| * Hungarian neutrality and withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact represented a breach in the Soviet defensive buffer zone of satellite nations.<sup>[113]</sup>
| |
| Soviet fear of invasion from the West made a defensive buffer of allied
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>states in Eastern Europe an essential security objective.
| |
| Soviet T-54 tanks in Budapest on 31 October
| |
| | |
| The militants arrived at the conclusion that "the Party is the incarnation of bureaucratic despotism"
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and that "socialism can develop only on the foundations of direct
| |
| democracy". For them the struggle of the Hungarian workers was a
| |
| struggle "for the principle of direct democracy" and "all power should
| |
| be transferred to the Workers Committees of Hungary".<sup>[114]</sup> The Presidium decided to break the ''de facto'' ceasefire and crush the Hungarian revolution.<sup>[115]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>The plan was to declare a "Provisional Revolutionary Government" under
| |
| János Kádár, who would appeal for Soviet assistance to restore order.
| |
| According to witnesses, Kádár was in Moscow in early November,<sup>[116]</sup> and he was in contact with the Soviet embassy while still a member of the Nagy government.<sup>[117]</sup> Delegations were sent to other Communist governments in Eastern Europe and China, seeking to avoid a regional conflict, and propaganda
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>messages prepared for broadcast when the second Soviet intervention had
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>begun. To disguise these intentions, Soviet diplomats were to engage
| |
| the Nagy government in talks discussing the withdrawal of Soviet forces.<sup>[99]</sup>
| |
| | |
| According to some sources, the Chinese leader Mao Zedong played an important role in Khrushchev's decision to suppress the Hungarian uprising. Chinese Communist Party Deputy Chairman Liu Shaoqi pressured Khrushchev to send in troops to put down the revolt by force.<sup>[118][119]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Although the relations between China and the Soviet Union had
| |
| deteriorated during the recent years, Mao's words still carried great
| |
| weight in the Kremlin, and they were frequently in contact during the
| |
| crisis. Initially, Mao opposed a second intervention, and this
| |
| information was passed on to Khrushchev on 30 October, before the
| |
| Presidium met and decided against intervention.<sup>[120]</sup> Mao then changed his mind in favour of intervention but, according to William Taubman, it remains unclear when and how Khrushchev learned of this and thus if it influenced his decision on 31 October.<sup>[121]</sup>
| |
| | |
| From 1 to 3 November, Khrushchev left Moscow to meet with his Warsaw Pact allies and inform them of the decision to intervene. At the first such meeting, he met with Władysław Gomułka in Brest. Then, he had talks with the Romanian, Czechoslovak, and Bulgarian leaders in Bucharest. Finally Khrushchev flew with Malenkov to Yugoslavia (Communist but outside Warsaw Pact) where they met Josip Broz Tito on his holiday island Brijuni. The Yugoslavs also persuaded Khrushchev to choose János Kádár instead of Ferenc Münnich as the new leader of Hungary.<sup>[122][123]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Two months after the Soviet crackdown, Tito confided in Nikolai
| |
| Firiubin, the Soviet ambassador to Yugoslavia, that "the reaction raised
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>its head, especially in Croatia, where the reactionary elements openly
| |
| incited the employees of the Yugoslav security organs to violence".<sup>[124]</sup>
| |
| | |
| ==== Polish response to the Hungarian uprising ====
| |
| Plaque commemorating Polish-Hungarian solidarity during the Hungarian revolution of 1956, at Krakowskie Przedmieście Street 5, in Warsaw.
| |
| | |
| The events in Hungary met with a very spontaneous reaction in Poland. Hungarian flags were displayed in many Polish towns and villages. After the Soviet invasion, the help given by the ordinary Poles to Hungarians
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>took on a considerable scale. Citizen organizations were established
| |
| throughout Poland to distribute aid to the Hungarian population. By 12
| |
| November, over 11,000 honorary blood donors had registered throughout
| |
| Poland. Polish Red Cross
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>statistics show that by air transport alone (15 aircraft), 44 tonnes of
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>medication, blood, and other medical supplies were delivered to
| |
| Hungary. Assistance sent using road and rail transport was much higher.
| |
| Polish aid is estimated at a value of approximately US$2 million of 1956
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>dollars.<sup>[125][126][127]</sup>
| |
| | |
| ==== International reaction ====
| |
| Although John Foster Dulles, the United States Secretary of State recommended on 24 October for the United Nations Security Council to convene to discuss the situation in Hungary, little immediate action was taken to introduce a resolution,<sup>[128]</sup> in part because other world events unfolded the day after the peaceful interlude started, when allied collusion started the Suez Crisis.
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>The problem was not that Suez distracted U.S. attention from Hungary
| |
| but that it made the condemnation of Soviet actions very difficult. As
| |
| Vice President Richard Nixon
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>later explained, "We couldn't on one hand, complain about the Soviets
| |
| intervening in Hungary and, on the other hand, approve of the British
| |
| and the French picking that particular time to intervene against [Gamel
| |
| Abdel] Nasser".<sup>[38]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Despite his earlier calls for the "rollback" of communism and
| |
| "liberation" of Eastern Europe, John Foster Dulles sent the Soviet
| |
| leaders a message: "We do not see these states [Hungary and Poland] as
| |
| potential military allies."<sup>[79]</sup>
| |
| | |
| The United States response was reliant on the CIA to covertly effect change, with both covert agents and Radio Free Europe.
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>However, their Hungarian operations collapsed rapidly and they could
| |
| not locate any of the weapon caches hidden across Europe, nor be sure to
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>whom they'd send arms. The agency's main source of information were the
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>newspapers and a State Department employee in Budapest called Geza
| |
| Katona.<sup>[40]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>By 28 October, on the same night that the new Nagy government came to
| |
| power, RFE was ramping up its broadcasts—encouraging armed struggle,
| |
| advising on how to combat tanks and signing off with "Freedom or
| |
| Death!"—on the orders of Frank Wisner. When Nagy did come to power, CIA director Allen Dulles advised the White House that Cardinal Mindszenty would be a better leader (due to Nagy's communist past); he had CIA
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>radio broadcasts run propaganda against Nagy, calling him a traitor
| |
| who'd invited Soviet troops in. Transmissions continued to broadcast
| |
| armed response while the CIA mistakenly believed that the Hungarian army was switching sides and the rebels were gaining arms.<sup>[129]</sup> (Wisner was recorded as having a "nervous breakdown" by William Colby as the uprising was crushed.<sup>[130]</sup>)
| |
| | |
| March to support Hungary in Eindhoven, the Netherlands, 5 November 1956
| |
| | |
| Responding to the plea by Nagy at the time of the second massive
| |
| Soviet intervention on 4 November, the Security Council resolution
| |
| critical of Soviet actions was vetoed by the Soviet Union; instead resolution 120 was adopted
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>to pass the matter onto the General Assembly. The General Assembly, by a
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>vote of 50 in favour, 8 against and 15 abstentions, called on the
| |
| Soviet Union to end its Hungarian intervention, but the newly
| |
| constituted Kádár government rejected UN observers.<sup>[131]</sup>
| |
| | |
| U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was aware of a detailed study of Hungarian resistance that recommended against U.S. military intervention,<sup>[132]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and of earlier policy discussions within the National Security Council
| |
| that focused upon encouraging discontent in Soviet satellite nations
| |
| only by economic policies and political rhetoric.<sup>[38][133]</sup> In a 1998 interview, Hungarian Ambassador Géza Jeszenszky was critical of Western inaction in 1956, citing the influence of the United Nations at that time and giving the example of UN intervention in Korea from 1950 to 1953.<sup>[134]</sup>
| |
| | |
| However, a Department of Defense study recently declassified by the National Security Archive
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>suggests that one of the main reasons the United States did not
| |
| intervene was the risk of inadvertently starting a nuclear war with the
| |
| Soviet Union. These concerns made the Eisenhower Administration take a
| |
| more cautious approach to the situation.<sup>[135]</sup>
| |
| | |
| During the uprising, the Radio Free Europe
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>(RFE) Hungarian-language programs broadcast news of the political and
| |
| military situation, as well as appealing to Hungarians to fight the
| |
| Soviet forces, including tactical advice on resistance methods. After
| |
| the Soviet suppression of the revolution, RFE was criticised for having
| |
| misled the Hungarian people that NATO or United Nations would intervene if citizens continued to resist.<sup>[136]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Allen Dulles lied to Eisenhower that RFE had not promised U.S. aid;
| |
| Eisenhower believed him, as the transcripts of the broadcasts were kept
| |
| secret.<sup>[129]</sup>
| |
| | |
| === Soviet intervention of 4 November ===
| |
| Play media
| |
| | |
| 1 November newsreel about the situation in Hungary
| |
| | |
| On 1 November, Imre Nagy received reports that Soviet forces had entered Hungary from the east and were moving towards Budapest.<sup>[137]</sup> Nagy sought and received assurances (which proved false) from Soviet ambassador Yuri Andropov
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>that the Soviet Union would not invade. The Cabinet, with János Kádár
| |
| in agreement, declared Hungary's neutrality, withdrew from the Warsaw Pact, and requested assistance from the diplomatic corps in Budapest and Dag Hammarskjöld, UN Secretary-General, to defend Hungary's neutrality.<sup>[138]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Ambassador Andropov was asked to inform his government that Hungary
| |
| would begin negotiations on the removal of Soviet forces immediately.<sup>[139][140]</sup>
| |
| | |
| On 3 November, a Hungarian delegation led by the Minister of Defense Pál Maléter was invited to attend negotiations on Soviet withdrawal at the Soviet Military Command at Tököl, near Budapest. At around midnight that evening, General Ivan Serov, Chief of the Soviet Security Police (KGB) ordered the arrest of the Hungarian delegation,<sup>[141]</sup> and the next day, the Soviet army again attacked Budapest.<sup>[142]</sup>
| |
| | |
| A Soviet built armored car burns on a street in Budapest in November
| |
| | |
| The second Soviet intervention, codenamed "Operation Whirlwind", was launched by Marshal Ivan Konev.<sup>[106][143]</sup> The five Soviet divisions stationed in Hungary before 23 October were augmented to a total strength of 17 divisions.<sup>[144]</sup> The 8th Mechanized Army under command of Lieutenant General Hamazasp Babadzhanian and the 38th Army under Lieutenant General Hadzhi-Umar Mamsurov from the nearby Carpathian Military District were deployed to Hungary for the operation.<sup>[145]</sup> Some rank-and-file Soviet soldiers reportedly believed they were being sent to Berlin to fight German fascists.<sup>[146]</sup> By 21:30 on 3 November, the Soviet Army had completely encircled Budapest.<sup>[147]</sup>
| |
| | |
| At 03:00 on 4 November, Soviet tanks penetrated Budapest along the Pest
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>side of the Danube in two thrusts: one up the Soroksári road from the
| |
| south and the other down the Váci road from the north. Thus before a
| |
| single shot was fired, the Soviets had effectively split the city in
| |
| half, controlled all bridgeheads, and were shielded to the rear by the
| |
| wide Danube river. Armoured units crossed into Buda
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and at 04:25 fired the first shots at the army barracks on Budaörsi
| |
| Road. Soon after, Soviet artillery and tank fire was heard in all
| |
| districts of Budapest.<sup>[147]</sup> Operation Whirlwind combined air strikes, artillery, and the co-ordinated tank–infantry action of 17 divisions.<sup>[148]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>The Soviet army deployed T-34-85 medium tanks, as well as the new
| |
| T-54s, heavy IS-3 tanks, 152mm ISU-152 mobile assault guns and open-top
| |
| BTR-152 armored personnel carriers.<sup>[149]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Two Soviet ISU-152 assault guns positioned in a street in Budapest 8th District. An abandoned T-34/85 stands behind them
| |
| | |
| Between 4 and 9 November, the Hungarian Army
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>put up sporadic and disorganised resistance, with Marshal Zhukov
| |
| reporting the disarming of twelve divisions, two armoured regiments, and
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>the entire Hungarian Air Force. The Hungarian Army continued its most
| |
| formidable resistance in various districts of Budapest and in and around
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>the city of Pécs in the Mecsek Mountains, and in the industrial centre of Dunaújváros
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>(then called Stalintown). Fighting in Budapest consisted of between ten
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and fifteen thousand resistance fighters, with the heaviest fighting
| |
| occurring in the working-class stronghold of Csepel on the Danube River.<sup>[150][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Although some very senior officers were openly pro-Soviet, the rank and
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>file soldiers were overwhelmingly loyal to the revolution and either
| |
| fought against the invasion or deserted. The United Nations reported
| |
| that there were no recorded incidents of Hungarian Army units fighting
| |
| on the side of the Soviets.<sup>[151]</sup>
| |
| | |
| At 05:20 on 4 November, Imre Nagy broadcast his final plea to the
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>nation and the world, announcing that Soviet Forces were attacking
| |
| Budapest and that the Government remained at its post.<sup>[152]</sup> The radio station, Free Kossuth Rádió, stopped broadcasting at 08:07.<sup>[153]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>An emergency Cabinet meeting was held in the Parliament but was
| |
| attended by only three ministers. As Soviet troops arrived to occupy the
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>building, a negotiated evacuation ensued, leaving Minister of State István Bibó as the last representative of the National Government remaining at his post.<sup>[154]</sup> He wrote ''For Freedom and Truth'', a stirring proclamation to the nation and the world.<sup>[155]</sup>
| |
| | |
| ''Ruszkik haza!'' (''Russians go home!'') slogan in Budapest
| |
| | |
| At 06:00, on 4 November,<sup>[156]</sup> in the town of Szolnok, János Kádár
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>proclaimed the "Hungarian Revolutionary Worker-Peasant Government". His
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>statement declared "We must put an end to the excesses of the
| |
| counter-revolutionary elements. The hour for action has sounded. We are
| |
| going to defend the interest of the workers and peasants and the
| |
| achievements of the people's democracy."<sup>[157]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Later that evening, Kádár called upon "the faithful fighters of the
| |
| true cause of socialism" to come out of hiding and take up arms.
| |
| However, Hungarian support did not materialise; the fighting did not
| |
| take on the character of an internally divisive civil war, but rather,
| |
| in the words of a United Nations report, that of "a well-equipped
| |
| foreign army crushing by overwhelming force a national movement and
| |
| eliminating the Government."<sup>[158]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Rubble after end of fighting in Budapest 8th District
| |
| | |
| By 08:00 organised defence of the city evaporated after the radio
| |
| station was seized, and many defenders fell back to fortified positions.<sup>[159]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>During the same hour, the parliamentary guard laid down their arms, and
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>forces under Major General K. Grebennik captured Parliament and
| |
| liberated captured ministers of the Rákosi–Hegedüs government. Among the liberated were István Dobi and Sándor Rónai, both of whom became members of the re-established socialist Hungarian government.<sup>[150]</sup> As they came under attack even in civilian quarters, Soviet troops were unable to differentiate military from civilian targets.<sup>[160]</sup> For this reason, Soviet tanks often crept along main roads firing indiscriminately into buildings.<sup>[159]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Hungarian resistance was strongest in the industrial areas of Budapest,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>with Csepel heavily targeted by Soviet artillery and air strikes.<sup>[161]</sup>
| |
| | |
| The longest holdouts against the Soviet assault occurred in Csepel and in Dunaújváros, where fighting lasted until 11 November before the insurgents finally succumbed to the Soviets.<sup>[62][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>At the end of the fighting, Hungarian casualties totalled around 2,500
| |
| dead with an additional 20,000 wounded. Budapest bore the brunt of the
| |
| bloodshed, with 1,569 civilians killed.<sup>[62][''page needed'']</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Approximately 53 percent of the dead were workers, and about half of
| |
| all the casualties were people younger than thirty. On the Soviet side,
| |
| 699 men were killed, 1,450 men were wounded, and 51 men were missing in
| |
| action. Estimates place around 80 percent of all casualties occurring in
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>fighting with the insurgents in the eighth and ninth districts of
| |
| Budapest.<sup>[62][''page needed''][162][163]</sup>
| |
