History of anarchism

History of the political philosophy of anarchism

The history of anarchism represents humanity's ongoing struggle against hierarchy, oppression and centralised power. While some scholars narrowly define anarchism as a 19th century political movement, anarchist principles of mutual aid, voluntary association, and opposition to domination have existed throughout human history. From prehistoric egalitarian societies to modern social movements, people have repeatedly organised themselves according to anarchist ideals, demonstrating that a world without rulers is not only possible, but has often been the norm.

Background

Anarchism, at its core, is the belief that hierarchical authority is harmful and unnecessary, and that human beings are capable of organising themselves cooperatively without rulers or states. While the term "anarchism" emerged in the 19th century, the basic principles have deep roots in human society and thought.

Anarchist scholar Peter Kropotkin argued that mutual aid and voluntary cooperation were key factors in human evolution and the development of human societies. He pointed to examples from nature and early human history to demonstrate that competition and hierarchical structures were not inevitable, but rather that solidarity and horizontality were essential for survival and flourishing.

The 19th century saw anarchism develop into a coherent political philosophy and social movement. Thinkers like Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Mikhail Bakunin, and Peter Kropotkin expanded on anarchist ideas, critiquing the state, capitalism, and other forms of oppression while envisioning alternative forms of social organisation based on freedom and equality.

Precursors

Prehistoric and ancient era

For the vast majority of human existence, people lived in stateless societies characterised by egalitarian social relations and the absence of coercive authority. Anthropologist Harold Barclay noted that for thousands of years, humans organised themselves through tribal assemblies, consensus decision-making, and other anarchistic forms of social organisation. These examples demonstrate that hierarchical structures and state authority are not inherent to human society, but relatively recent developments in our species' history.

In ancient China, philosophical Taoism developed ideas that resonated strongly with later anarchist thought. Taoists like Lao Tzu criticised government, hierarchy, and the accumulation of wealth and power. The Tao Te Ching asks, "Why are the people starving? Because the rulers eat up the money in taxes. Therefore the people are starving. Why are the people rebellious? Because the rulers interfere too much. Therefore they are rebellious." Such critiques of state power and advocacy for natural, spontaneous order align closely with anarchist principles.

Ancient Greece saw the emergence of several schools of thought that contained anarchistic elements. The Cynics, particularly Diogenes of Sinope, rejected social conventions, lived simply, and critiqued the wealthy and powerful. Zeno of Citium, founder of Stoicism, described an ideal society without government, private property, or need for law courts. These ideas challenged the assumed necessity of state structures and laid important groundwork for later anarchist philosophy.

Middle Ages

While the Middle Ages are often characterised as a time of rigid hierarchy and feudalism, this period also saw the development of ideas and movements that challenged centralised power and prefigured anarchist thought. Heretical religious movements like the Brethren of the Free Spirit and radical offshoots of the Hussite movement promoted egalitarian ideas and, at times, established communities based on the sharing of goods and rejection of traditional authority.

In the Islamic world, some theological movements developed proto-anarchist ideas. The Najdiyya Kharijites and certain Mu'tazilite thinkers argued that the state was harmful, illegitimate, and unnecessary from a religious perspective. While these movements did not fully align with modern anarchism, they demonstrate a long history of anti-state thought across cultures.

The peasant rebellions that swept across Europe in the late Middle Ages, such as the English Peasants' Revolt of 1381, contained strongly anarchistic elements in their rejection of feudal hierarchies and demands for social equality. Although these uprisings were ultimately defeated, they represented important moments of popular resistance against entrenched power structures.

Renaissance and early modern era

The Renaissance and Enlightenment periods saw a resurgence of ideas challenging traditional authority and envisioning alternative forms of social organisation. Writers like François Rabelais used the genre of utopian literature to explore radically different societies, often incorporating proto-anarchist ideas.

Gerrard Winstanley, a leader of the Diggers movement during the English Civil War, articulated a vision of a society without private property, wage labour, or state coercion. His pamphlet "The New Law of Righteousness" called for a communist system based on small, self-governing agrarian communities. While religious in nature, Winstanley's ideas prefigured many later anarchist concepts.

In the Americas, some European observers noted the absence of state structures among many indigenous societies. Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce de Lahontan's writings on North American indigenous peoples described societies functioning without formal government, laws, prisons, or private property - an early recognition of actually existing stateless societies that would later influence anarchist thought.

These precursors demonstrate that challenges to state authority and visions of stateless societies have a long and diverse history across cultures. While not always fully developed anarchist philosophies, these ideas and movements laid important groundwork for the emergence of anarchism as a coherent political ideology in the 19th century.

Early anarchism

Developments of the 18th century

The 18th century saw the emergence of ideas that would become foundational to anarchist thought. The Age of Enlightenment brought a renewed focus on reason and individual liberty, challenging traditional hierarchies and paving the way for more radical critiques of authority.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, while not an anarchist himself, articulated ideas that would greatly influence anarchist thinkers. His critiques of private property and the state, along with his concept of the "general will", provided important groundwork for later anarchist theories. Rousseau's assertion that the arts and sciences had not improved morality, but rather contributed to moral corruption, resonated with later anarchist critiques of civilisation and progress.

The French Revolution marked a pivotal moment in the development of anarchist ideas. While the revolution ultimately resulted in a new form of state power, it demonstrated the possibility of overthrowing entrenched systems of authority. The actions of the Enragés and the sans-culottes during this period, with their demands for direct democracy and economic equality, prefigured many anarchist principles.

William Godwin, often regarded as the first modern proponent of anarchist ideas, published his groundbreaking work "Political Justice" in 1793. Godwin argued that government is inherently corrupt and that social harmony is best achieved through the free exercise of individual reason. He envisioned a stateless society based on voluntary associations and believed that the spread of education and rational thinking would eventually make government obsolete.

These 18th-century developments set the stage for the emergence of anarchism as a distinct political philosophy in the following century.

Proudhon and Stirner

The 19th century saw the articulation of anarchism as a coherent political philosophy, with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Max Stirner emerging as two of its most influential early theorists.

Proudhon, in his seminal 1840 work "What Is Property?", famously declared that "property is theft", challenging the very foundations of capitalist society. However, he also asserted that "property is liberty", advocating for a system of possession based on use rather than absentee ownership. Proudhon's theory of mutualism proposed a society of free producers, exchanging goods and services via mutual credit banks. His ideas laid the groundwork for both collectivist and individualist strands of anarchist thought.

Stirner, in his 1844 book "The Ego and Its Own", developed a radical philosophy of individualism that rejected all external authority, including the state, morality, and even society itself. Stirner's egoism posited that the only limitation on individual liberty should be one's own power to obtain what they desire. While controversial, Stirner's ideas have been influential in individualist anarchist currents and in the development of existentialist philosophy.

The contrast between Proudhon's social anarchism and Stirner's individualism highlights the diversity of thought within early anarchism, a diversity that continues to characterise the movement to this day.

Revolutions of 1848

The Revolutions of 1848, which swept across Europe, provided a crucial testing ground for anarchist ideas and tactics. Many anarchists participated actively in these uprisings, seeing them as opportunities to push for radical social change beyond mere political reforms.

In France, Proudhon was elected to the National Assembly following the revolution. However, his experiences in government only reinforced his anarchist convictions. He became increasingly convinced that social revolution, rather than political action, was necessary to achieve meaningful change.

The Russian revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin, who would later become a leading figure in the anarchist movement, was also deeply influenced by the events of 1848. His participation in the uprisings, particularly in Dresden, led to his arrest and eventual exile. These experiences radicalised Bakunin, cementing his rejection of state authority and his belief in the revolutionary potential of the masses.

Other anarchists active during this period included Joseph Déjacque, who coined the term "libertarian" as a synonym for anarchist, and Anselme Bellegarrigue, who published some of the earliest explicitly anarchist periodicals.

While the revolutions of 1848 were ultimately defeated, they played a crucial role in the development of anarchist theory and practice. The failure of political revolutions to bring about fundamental social change reinforced anarchist critiques of state power and reformist strategies, setting the stage for the growth of the anarchist movement in subsequent decades.

Classical anarchism

The period from the late 19th to the early 20th century is often referred to as the "classical" era of anarchism. During this time, anarchism flourished as a significant force within the broader workers' movement, developing distinct schools of thought and engaging in major social struggles.

First International and Paris Commune

The formation of the International Workingmen's Association (IWA), also known as the First International, in 1864 marked a crucial moment in the development of anarchism as a mass movement. Within the International, anarchists, led by Mikhail Bakunin, articulated a vision of revolutionary change that stood in stark contrast to the state socialism advocated by Karl Marx and his followers.

Bakunin and his allies argued for the immediate abolition of the state and its replacement with a federation of self-governing communes and workers' associations. They warned that the seizure of state power, even by ostensibly revolutionary forces, would inevitably lead to the creation of a new ruling class. This prescient critique would later be borne out by the experiences of state socialist regimes in the 20th century.

The conflict between the anarchists and the Marxists came to a head at the Hague Congress of 1872, resulting in the expulsion of Bakunin and his supporters from the International. In response, the anarchists formed their own International at the St. Imier Congress, committed to the principles of anti-authoritarianism and federalism.

The Paris Commune of 1871, while short-lived, provided a powerful example of the kind of decentralised, directly democratic society envisioned by anarchists. Many anarchists, including Louise Michel and Élisée Reclus, participated actively in the Commune. While ultimately crushed by the French government, the Commune remained an inspiration for anarchists and other revolutionaries for decades to come.

Emergence of anarcho-communism

The late 19th century saw the development of anarcho-communism as a distinct tendency within the anarchist movement. Thinkers such as Carlo Cafiero, Errico Malatesta, and Peter Kropotkin argued that the collectivist wages system advocated by some earlier anarchists would inevitably lead to inequality and the recreation of capitalist relations.

Instead, they proposed a system based on the principle of "from each according to their ability, to each according to their needs". Kropotkin, in particular, made significant contributions to anarchist theory with works such as "The Conquest of Bread" and "Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution". He sought to ground anarchist ideas in scientific understanding, arguing that mutual aid, rather than competition, was the primary factor in evolutionary success.

Anarcho-communism quickly became the dominant trend within the anarchist movement in most countries, with the notable exception of Spain where anarcho-syndicalism held sway.

Organised labour and syndicalism

The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the growth of anarcho-syndicalism as a major force within the labour movement. Anarcho-syndicalists viewed revolutionary industrial unionism as the means to overthrow both capitalism and the state, envisioning a society managed by workers through their own organisations.

In the United States, anarchists played a significant role in the labour struggles of the period, including the campaign for the eight-hour workday. The Haymarket affair of 1886 became a pivotal moment in the history of anarchism and the labour movement more broadly. The execution of several anarchists in its aftermath led to increased repression of anarchists in the US, but also contributed to the establishment of May Day as an international workers' holiday.

In Europe, the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) in France became a model of anarcho-syndicalist organisation, while in Spain, the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) grew into one of the largest and most influential anarchist organisations in history.

The 1907 International Anarchist Congress of Amsterdam brought together anarchists from around the world to debate strategy and tactics. A key discussion centred on the relationship between anarchism and the labour movement, with some, like Errico Malatesta, warning against the potential for unions to become reformist and bureaucratic.

Propaganda of the deed

In the late 19th century, some anarchists adopted the tactic of "propaganda of the deed" - dramatic acts of violence aimed at inspiring the masses to revolt. This strategy emerged in a context of severe state repression and frustration with the slow pace of social change.

Notable actions included the assassination of Tsar Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya in 1881 (which, while not an anarchist organisation, inspired many anarchists), and the killing of French President Sadi Carnot by Italian anarchist Sante Geronimo Caserio in 1894. In the United States, Leon Czolgosz, inspired by anarchist ideas, assassinated President William McKinley in 1901.

Emma Goldman, while not advocating such tactics herself, defended those who carried them out, arguing that their actions were a understandable response to state violence and oppression. She wrote, "The average mind is slow in grasping a great idea. But the most sluggish intellect is sure to be roused by spectacular performances."

However, many prominent anarchists, including Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta, eventually came to criticise propaganda of the deed. They argued that it was counterproductive, inviting state repression and alienating the public from anarchist ideas. By the early 20th century, most anarchists had abandoned the tactic in favour of organised labour struggle and other forms of direct action.

Revolutionary wave

The period from 1917 to 1923 saw a wave of revolutionary activity in which anarchists played a significant role. In Russia, anarchists initially participated enthusiastically in the revolution, seeing it as an opportunity to put their ideas into practice. However, they quickly came into conflict with the Bolsheviks over the centralisation of power in the new Soviet state.

The Free Territory in Ukraine, led by Nestor Makhno, represented one of the largest-scale attempts to implement anarchist principles in practice. From 1918 to 1921, the Makhnovists established a stateless society based on voluntary association and worker/peasant self-organisation. They successfully fought against both White and Red armies before being ultimately crushed by the Bolsheviks.

In Germany, anarchists like Gustav Landauer and Erich Mühsam played key roles in the Bavarian Soviet Republic of 1919, attempting to implement a decentralised system of workers' and peasants' councils. Though short-lived, this experiment demonstrated the viability of anarchist organisational models.

The Italian factory occupations of 1920-1921, in which the anarcho-syndicalist Unione Sindacale Italiana played a leading role, saw workers take control of their workplaces and run them democratically. While ultimately defeated, these actions represented a high point of revolutionary anarchist activity in Italy.

In Spain, the anarcho-syndicalist CNT continued to grow in strength, laying the groundwork for the social revolution that would erupt during the Spanish Civil War.

The suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion in 1921 by the Bolshevik government marked a turning point for many anarchists. The crushing of this uprising, which had called for free soviets and an end to Bolshevik dictatorship, confirmed anarchist critiques of state socialism and deepened the divide between anarchists and Marxists.

Throughout this period, anarchists demonstrated in practice the possibility of non-hierarchical, decentralised forms of social organisation. While these experiments were ultimately defeated by state repression, they provided valuable lessons and inspiration for future generations of anarchists.

Rise of fascism

The 1920s and 1930s saw the rise of fascism in Europe, presenting a grave threat to anarchists and the broader workers' movement. Anarchists were among the first to recognise the danger of fascism and to organise resistance against it.

In Italy, anarchists played a key role in the Arditi del Popolo, one of the earliest anti-fascist organisations. In 1922, the Arditi successfully defended the city of Parma against fascist squadristi, demonstrating the effectiveness of organised working-class resistance. Despite these efforts, the fascist regime eventually consolidated power, forcing many anarchists into exile or underground activity.

In Germany, anarchists participated in various forms of resistance against the Nazi regime, often at great personal risk. The Edelweiss Pirates, a loosely organised network of working-class youth groups, included many with anarchist leanings. They engaged in direct action against the Nazi regime, including sabotage and assistance to persecuted groups.

The threat of fascism led to debates within the anarchist movement about the nature of anti-fascist struggle and the question of alliances with other left-wing forces. While some advocated for a united front approach, others warned against compromising anarchist principles in the name of anti-fascism.

Spanish Revolution

The Spanish Revolution of 1936 represents one of the most significant examples of anarchism in practice on a large scale. In response to the fascist military coup, workers and peasants across much of Spain, particularly in Catalonia and Aragon, seized control of factories, land, and public services.

The Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT), the anarcho-syndicalist union, played a leading role in these events. In many areas, money was abolished, industry was collectivised under worker control, and agricultural land was redistributed to be worked collectively. This represented a genuine attempt to create a stateless, classless society based on the principles of mutual aid and direct democracy.

In Barcelona, often considered the heart of the revolution, workers' committees took over the running of industries, public transport, and services. The atmosphere of revolutionary enthusiasm was captured by foreign observers like George Orwell, who wrote in "Homage to Catalonia" about seeing "the belief in the revolution and the future, the feeling of having suddenly emerged into an era of equality and freedom."

The anarchist militias, such as the Durruti Column, fought against the fascist forces on the principles of egalitarianism and voluntary discipline, without formal ranks or officers. These militias demonstrated that it was possible to organise effective military resistance without resorting to hierarchical structures.

However, the revolution faced numerous challenges, both external and internal. The decision of some CNT leaders to join the Republican government in the name of anti-fascist unity was controversial, with many rank-and-file anarchists seeing it as a betrayal of principles. The revolution also faced hostility from the Soviet-backed Communist Party, which sought to curtail the social revolution in favour of a conventional war effort.

Despite these challenges, the Spanish Revolution remains a powerful example of anarchist ideas put into practice on a mass scale. It demonstrated the viability of workers' self-management and decentralised organisation, even in the midst of civil war. The eventual defeat of the revolution at the hands of Franco's forces, after nearly three years of struggle, marked the end of the classical period of anarchism but continues to inspire anarchists to this day.

Anarchism in the colonial world

While often overlooked in traditional histories, anarchism had a significant impact in many colonial and post-colonial contexts. The movement's anti-authoritarian and anti-imperialist stance resonated with many in the Global South who were fighting against both colonial oppression and indigenous elites.

In China, anarchism emerged as a major force in the early 20th century. Figures like Liu Shifu promoted anarchist ideas, which influenced the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement. Chinese anarchists emphasised the need for social revolution alongside national liberation, critiquing both Western imperialism and traditional Confucian hierarchy.

In Korea, anarchists played a crucial role in the resistance against Japanese colonial rule. The Korean Anarchist Federation in Manchuria (KAFM) established the Korean People's Association in Manchuria, a stateless commune that existed from 1929 to 1931. This experience demonstrated the potential for anarchist organisation in the context of anti-colonial struggle.

Latin America saw a strong anarchist presence in the labour movements of countries like Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico. The Mexican Liberal Party, led by anarchist brothers Ricardo and Enrique Flores Magón, played a significant role in the lead-up to the Mexican Revolution, advocating for land reform and workers' rights.

In Africa, though not as widespread, anarchist ideas influenced anti-colonial movements in several countries. The traditional communal practices of many African societies resonated with anarchist principles of mutual aid and direct democracy.

These diverse experiences highlight the global reach of anarchism and its adaptability to different cultural contexts. They also challenge Eurocentric narratives of anarchist history, demonstrating that the movement was truly international in scope.

Post-war period

The aftermath of World War II saw a decline in anarchist movements in many parts of the world. The rise of the Cold War, with its polarisation between Western capitalism and Soviet communism, left little space for anarchist alternatives in mainstream political discourse.

However, anarchism didn't disappear; it evolved and found new expressions. The 1960s saw a resurgence of interest in anarchist ideas, particularly in the context of the New Left and counterculture movements. Anarchists played significant roles in the anti-war movement, the civil rights struggle, and the emerging environmental movement.

Murray Bookchin's concept of social ecology offered a new anarchist perspective on environmental issues, arguing that ecological problems are rooted in social hierarchies and domination. This laid the groundwork for green anarchism and eco-anarchist currents.

The events of May 1968 in France, while not explicitly anarchist, embodied many anarchist principles in their spontaneous, decentralised organisation and rejection of both capitalist and Stalinist bureaucracies. The slogan "Be realistic, demand the impossible!" captured the utopian spirit that anarchism had long championed.

The emergence of second-wave feminism also saw the development of anarcha-feminism. Writers like Peggy Kornegger and Carol Ehrlich articulated a synthesis of anarchist and feminist ideas, arguing that the fight against patriarchy must be an integral part of the struggle against all forms of hierarchy.

In Spain, the death of Franco in 1975 allowed for a revival of the anarchist movement. The CNT was reformed and attracted many young activists, though internal debates about strategy led to splits within the organisation.

The late 20th century also saw the growth of anarchist-inspired movements in the Global South, such as the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Mexico. While not explicitly anarchist, the Zapatistas' emphasis on autonomy, direct democracy, and rejection of state power resonated with anarchist principles.

Despite the challenges of the post-war period, anarchism demonstrated its resilience and adaptability. By engaging with new social movements and evolving its critique to address contemporary issues, anarchism remained a vital current in radical politics.

Contemporary anarchism

The late 20th and early 21st centuries have seen a resurgence of anarchist ideas and practices, often in new forms and contexts. Anarchism has played a significant role in various social movements, adapting its tactics and theories to address contemporary issues.

The anti-globalisation movement of the late 1990s and early 2000s incorporated many anarchist principles in its organisation and tactics. The 1999 WTO protests in Seattle saw the emergence of the "black bloc" tactic on a large scale, while the overall structure of the protests - based on affinity groups and consensus decision-making - reflected anarchist organisational models.

Anarchists have been at the forefront of developing and promoting alternative economic models. The concept of participatory economics (parecon), developed by Michael Albert and Robin Hahnel, offers an anarchist-inspired vision of a post-capitalist economy. Meanwhile, practical experiments in worker self-management and cooperative organisation continue to embody anarchist principles in everyday economic life.

The rise of the internet and digital technologies has opened new avenues for anarchist organisation and the dissemination of ideas. Platforms for secure, decentralised communication have facilitated new forms of activism, while initiatives like Wikipedia embody anarchist principles of voluntary cooperation and non-hierarchical organisation.

The Occupy movement of 2011 drew heavily on anarchist tactics and ideas, with its emphasis on direct democracy, leaderless structure, and critique of economic inequality. While short-lived in its original form, Occupy helped to popularise anarchist methods of organisation and direct action.

In Rojava, northern Syria, the ongoing revolution has put many anarchist principles into practice on a significant scale. While not explicitly anarchist, the Rojava system of democratic confederalism, inspired by the ideas of Abdullah Öcalan and Murray Bookchin, has created a form of stateless, feminist, and ecologically-minded society that many anarchists see as a model for future organising.

Contemporary anarchism has also engaged deeply with issues of ecology and climate change. Green anarchism and anarcho-primitivism have offered radical critiques of industrial civilisation, while other anarchists have been at the forefront of movements for climate justice and sustainable living.

Intersectionality has become an important concept in contemporary anarchist thought, with increased focus on how different forms of oppression intersect and reinforce each other. This has led to a more nuanced understanding of how anarchist struggle must simultaneously address issues of class, race, gender, sexuality, and ability.

Despite ongoing state repression and the challenges of organising in an increasingly surveilled and controlled world, anarchism continues to offer a vision of a free and equal society. Its emphasis on direct action, mutual aid, and horizontal organisation continues to inspire movements for social change around the world.

As we face global crises of climate change, economic inequality, and authoritanism, anarchist ideas continue to offer vital alternatives to the status quo. The emphasis on direct action, mutual aid, and horizontal organization that has characterized anarchism throughout its history remains relevant in addressing contemporary challenges. From the early theorists to modern-day practitioners, anarchists have consistently critiqued hierarchical power structures and envisioned societies based on voluntary cooperation and individual freedom. The ongoing experiments in anarchist-inspired organization, from digital platforms to real-world communities like Rojava, demonstrate that anarchism is not merely a historical curiosity, but a living, evolving set of ideas and practices. As state and corporate power become increasingly intertwined and pervasive, anarchism's fundamental questioning of authority and its imaginative proposals for alternative forms of social organization continue to inspire movements for radical social change around the world.