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| The '''Tunisian Revolution''' or the '''Dignity Revolution''' (called the '''Jasmine Revolution''' outside Tunisia)''' '''was a revolution in Tunsia in [[Timeline of Libertarian Socialism in Northern Africa|2010 and 2011]] which led to the fall of the [[Ali Dictatorship]] and the creation of a [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[Representative Democracy|representative democracy]]. | | The '''Tunisian Revolution''' or the '''Dignity Revolution''' (called the '''Jasmine Revolution''' outside Tunisia)''' '''was a revolution in [[Tunisia]] in [[Timeline of Anarchism in Northern Africa|2010 and 2011]] which led to the fall of the [[Ali Dictatorship]] and the creation of a [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[Representative Democracy|representative democracy]]. |
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| == Background == | | == Background == |
| ''Main Article: [[Ali Dictatorship]]'' | | ''Main Article: [[Ali Dictatorship]]'' |
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| For 23 years, Tunisia had been under the dictatorship of Ben Ali, a one-party state that not only restricted the media but also repressed political opposition (notably backed by the [[Timeline of US Imperialism|US]] and [[Francafrique|France]]). Compounded with high unemployment, inflation, corruption and poor living conditions it was a breeding ground for revolt. Mohamed Bouazizi, a street vendor who sold fruit and vegetableswho has been harassed repeatdly by corrupt police ended up burning himself in public in front of the city headquarters, sparking the revolution. | | For 23 years, Tunisia had been under the dictatorship of Ben Ali, a one-party state that not only restricted the media but also repressed political opposition (notably backed by the [[Timeline of US Imperialism|US]] and [[Francafrique|France]]). Compounded with high unemployment, inflation, corruption and poor living conditions it was a breeding ground for revolt. On the 17 of the December, [[Mohamed Bouazizi]], a street vendor who sold fruit and vegetables who has been harassed repeatedly by city officials ended up burning himself in public in front of the city headquarters after his requests to take back his produce was denied, sparking the revolution. |
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| A humiliated Bouazizi then went to the provincial headquarters in
| | == Events == |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>an attempt to complain to local municipality officials and to have his
| | Following Bouazizi's self-burning, protests occurred in the city, and protesters began to attack shop windows and cars, leading to police attacking them. Tear gas was fired onto protesters and extra police posted as protesters gathered outside the capital. Several other protesters killed themselves and police shot several protesters, and curfews were imposed. Violence exploded across the country, as trade unions began to organise protest marches and protesters began to attack police and set fire to tires. Hacking began of governments websites began and Tunisia's lawyers went on strike, with teachers joining the following day. Protsters set fire to buses and cars, leading to the military being deployed. |
| produce returned. He was refused an audience. Without alerting his
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| family, at 11:30 am and within an hour of the initial confrontation,
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| Bouazizi returned to the headquarters, doused himself with a flammable
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| liquid and set himself on fire. Public outrage quickly grew over the
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| incident, leading to protests.<sup>[46][47]</sup> This immolation, and the subsequent heavy-handed response by the police to peaceful marchers, provoked riots the next day in Sidi Bouzid. The riots went largely unnoticed, though social media
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>sites diseminated images of police dispersing youths who attacked shop
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| windows and damaged cars. Bouazizi was subsequently transferred to a
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| hospital near Tunis. In an attempt to quell the unrest, President Ben
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| Ali visited Bouazizi in hospital on 28 December. Bouazizi died on
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| 4 January 2011.<sup>[48]</sup>
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| There were reports of police obstructing demonstrators and using tear gas on hundreds of young protesters in Sidi Bouzid in mid-December. The protesters had gathered outside regional government headquarters to demonstrate against the treatment of Mohamed Bouazizi. Coverage of events was limited by Tunisian media. On 19 December, extra police were present on the city's streets.<sup>[51]</sup>
| | On the 28th of December, Ben Ali fired several ministers and announced the creation of 300,000 jobs. He accused the protesters of being extremists, gang members and foreign mercenaries. Political prisoners were released and all schools and universities were closed. On the 14th of January the government was dissolved, the airport was closed, a state of emergency declared and elections were called. Ben Ali later fled that day to [[Malta]] under [[Socialist Libya|Libyan]] protection before fleeing to [[Saudi Arabia]] after being denied entry to [[France]]. |
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| On 22 December, protester Lahseen Naji, responding to "hunger and joblessness", electrocuted himself after climbing an electricity pylon.<sup>[52]</sup> Ramzi Al-Abboudi also killed himself because of financial difficulties arising from a business debt by the country's micro-credit solidarity programme.<sup>[41]</sup> On 24 December,
| | A temporary government was set up to organise elections and maintain law and order. Looting continued and the main train station of Tunis (the largest and capital city of Tunisia) was burnt. A prison director in Mahdia freed about 1,000 inmates following a prison rebellion that left 5 people dead. Many other prisons also had jailbreaks or raids from external groups to<nowiki> </nowiki>force prisoner releases, some suspected to be aided by prison guards. Residents who were running out of necessary food supplies had armed themselves and barricaded their homes, and in some cases had formed armed neighborhood watches. The police, pro-Ali militias and the state security service were vying for control and several gunfights erupted between the groups. |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Mohamed Ammari was fatally shot in the chest by police in Bouziane. | |
| Other protesters were also injured, including Chawki Belhoussine El
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| Hadri, who died later on 30 December.<sup>[53]</sup> Police claimed they shot the demonstrators in "self-defence". A "quasi-curfew" was then imposed on the city by police.<sup>[54]</sup> Rapper El Général,
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>whose songs had been adopted by protesters, was arrested on 24 December
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>but released several days later after "an enormous public reaction".<sup>[55]</sup>
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| Violence increased, and protests reached the capital, Tunis,<sup>[52]</sup> on 27 December where a thousand citizens expressed solidarity<sup>[56]</sup>
| | The new government saw daily protests, leading to it quickly dissolving itself. The next government announced that all prisoners would be freed, all political parties legalised in six months and transparent and free elections in six months. Police soon joined the protesters for increased pay and the army firmly defended the revolution. The new government fulfilled protester demands, and elections were held on the 23rd of October, 2011. |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>with residents of Sidi Bouzid and called for jobs. The rally, organised
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>by independent trade union activists, was stopped by security forces.
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| Protests also spread to Sousse, Sfax and Meknassy.<sup>[57]</sup> The following day, the Tunisian Federation of Labour Unions held another rally in Gafsa which was also blocked by security forces. About 300 lawyers held a rally near the government's palace in Tunis.<sup>[58]</sup> Protests continued again on 29 December.<sup>[59]</sup>
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| On 30 December, police peacefully dispersed a protest in Monastir, while using force to disrupt further demonstrations in Sbikha and Chebba. Momentum appeared to continue with the protests on 31 December
| | == Results == |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and the Tunisian National Lawyers Order organised further
| | The revolution resulted in several things, notably: |
| demonstrations and public gatherings by lawyers in Tunis and other
| | * The revolution triggered the wider (and much less successful) [[Arab Spring]] and a [[Revolutions of 2010 - 2015|wave of protests, revolts and strikes across the world in 2011]]. |
| cities. Mokhtar Trifi, president of the Tunisian Human Rights League
| | * Creation of a liberal representative democracy in Tunisia. |
| (LTDH), said that lawyers across Tunisia had been "savagely beaten".<sup>[53]</sup> There were also unconfirmed reports of another man attempting to commit suicide in El Hamma.<sup>[60]</sup>
| | * Massive expansion of [[Feminism|women's rights]]. |
| | * Greater internet freedom, access to Tor and [[YouTube]]. |
| | * 4,000 refugees fleeing to [[Italy]]. |
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| On 3 January 2011, protests in Thala over unemployment and a high cost of living
| | == Analysis == |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>turned violent. At a demonstration of 250 people, mostly students,
| | The Tunisian Revolution has been heavily analysed for it being the only successful revolution of the Arab Spring (arguably alongside [[Rojava Revolution|Rojava]]), several factors for this success have been proposed, especially in comparison to the [[Egyptian Revolution (2011)|failed revolution in Egypt]]. |
| police fired tear gas; one canister landed in a local mosque. In
| | * The military stayed out of politics. |
| response, the protesters were reported to have set fire to tyres and
| | * Tunisia lacked severe religious and ethnic tensions, with the religious right refusing to enact Sharia Law and accepting an equal rights amendment for women. Secularists did not attempt to restrict religious organisations. |
| attacked the RCD offices.<sup>[61]</sup>
| | * Tunisia had large and independent [[Trade Union|trade unions]]. |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Some of the more general protests sought changes in the government's
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| online censorship; Tunisian authorities allegedly carried out phishing operations to take control of user passwords and check online criticism. Both state and non-state websites had been hacked.<sup>[62]</sup>
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| On 6 January, 95% of Tunisia's 8,000 lawyers went on strike, according to the chairman of the national bar association.
| | == References == |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>He said, "The strike carries a clear message that we do not accept
| | [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunisian_Revolution Tunisian Revolution] at [[Wikipedia]] |
| unjustified attacks on lawyers. We want to strongly protest against the
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| beating of lawyers in the past few days."<sup>[63]</sup> It was reported on the following day that teachers had also joined the strike.<sup>[64]</sup>
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| In response to 11 January protests, police used riot gear to
| | [https://www.juancole.com/2014/01/transition-democracy-succeeding.html Why Tunisia’s Transition to Democracy is Succeeding while Egypt Falters][[Category:AnarWiki]] |
| disperse protesters ransacking buildings, burning tyres, setting fire to
| | [[Category:Tunisia]] |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>a bus and burning two cars in the Tunis working-class suburb of Ettadhamen-Mnihla.
| | [[Category:Northern Africa]] |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>The protesters were said to have chanted "We are not afraid, we are not
| | [[Category:Africa]] |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>afraid, we are afraid only of God". Military personnel were also
| | [[Category:2011]] |
| deployed in many cities around the country.<sup>[65]</sup>
| | [[Category:2010s]] |
| | | [[Category:21st Century]] |
| On 12 January, a reporter from Italian broadcaster RAI
| | [[Category:Revolutions]] |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>stated that he and his cameraman were beaten with batons by police
| | [[Category:General Strikes]] |
| during a riot in Tunis's central district and that the officers then
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| confiscated their camera.<sup>[66]</sup> A curfew was ordered in Tunis after protests and clashes with police.<sup>[67]</sup>
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| Hizb ut-Tahrir organised protests after Friday prayer on 14 January to call for re-establishing the Islamic caliphate.<sup>[68]</sup> A day later, it also organised other protests that marched to the 9 April Prison to free political prisoners.<sup>[69]</sup>
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| Also on 14 January, Lucas Dolega, a photojournalist for the European Pressphoto Agency, was hit in the forehead by a tear gas canister allegedly fired by the police at short range; he died two days later.<sup>[70][71][72][73]</sup>
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| == End of Ben Ali's rule ==
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| During a national television broadcast on 28 December,
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>President Ben Ali criticised protesters as "extremists and mercenaries"
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>and warned of "firm" punishment. He also accused "certain foreign
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| television channels" of spreading falsehoods and deforming the truth,
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| and called them "hostile to Tunisia".<sup>[74]</sup> His remarks were ignored and the protests continued.<sup>[59]</sup>
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| On 29 December, Ben Ali shuffled his cabinet to remove communications minister Oussama Romdhani, while also announcing changes to the trade and handicrafts, religious affairs, communication and youth portfolios.<sup>[75]</sup> The next day he also announced the dismissal of the governors of Sidi Bouzid, Jendouba and Zaghouan.<sup>[76]</sup>
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| In January 2011, Ben Ali said 300,000 new jobs would be created,
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| though he did not clarify what that meant. He described the protests as
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| "the work of masked gangs" attacking public property and citizens in
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| their homes, and "a terrorist act that cannot be overlooked". Ahmed Najib Chebbi, the leader of the Progressive Democratic Party
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>(PDP), responded that despite official claims of police firing in
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| self-defense "the demonstrations were non-violent and the youths were
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| claiming their rights to jobs" and that "the funeral processions [for
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| those killed on 9 January] turned into demonstrations, and the police
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| fired [at] the youths who were at these [...] processions." He then
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| criticised Ben Ali's comments as the protesters were "claiming their
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| civil rights, and there is no terrorist act...no religious slogans". He
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| further accused Ben Ali of "looking for scapegoats" and dismissed the
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| creation of jobs as mere promises.<sup>[77]</sup>
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| Several webloggers and rapper El Général<sup>[78][79]</sup> were arrested, but the rapper and some of the bloggers were later released.<sup>[80]</sup> Reporters Without Borders
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>said the arrest of at least six bloggers and activists, who had either
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| been arrested or had disappeared across Tunisia, was brought to their
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| attention and that there were "probably" others.<sup>[81]</sup> Tunisian Pirate Party activists Slah Eddine Kchouk, Slim Amamou<sup>[82][83]</sup> (later appointed Secretary of State for Sport and Youth by the incoming government)<sup>[84][85]</sup> and Azyz Amamy were arrested but later released.<sup>[62][86][87][88]</sup> Hamma Hammami, the leader of the banned Tunisian Workers' Communist Party and a prominent critic of Ben Ali, was arrested on 12 January,<sup>[67]</sup> and released two days later.<sup>[89]</sup>
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| On 10 January, the government announced the indefinite closure of all schools and universities in order to quell the unrest.<sup>[90]</sup> Days before departing office, Ben Ali announced that he would not change the present constitution, which would require him to step down in 2014 due to his age.<sup>[91]</sup>
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| On 14 January, Ben Ali dissolved his government and declared a state of emergency.
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>The official reason given was to protect Tunisians and their property.
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| People were barred from gathering in groups of more than three, and
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| could be arrested or shot if they tried to run away.<sup>[92][93]</sup> Ben Ali called for an election within six months to defuse demonstrations aimed at forcing him out.<sup>[94]</sup> France24 reported that the military took control of the airport and closed the country's airspace.<sup>[95]</sup>
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| Translation from French: Ben Ali out
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| On the same day, Ben Ali fled the country for Malta under Libyan protection.<sup>[96]</sup> His aircraft landed in Jeddah,
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>Saudi Arabia, after France rejected a request to land on its territory.
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>Saudi Arabia cited "exceptional circumstances" for their heavily
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| criticised decision to give him asylum, saying it was also "in support
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| of the security and stability of their country". Saudi Arabia demanded
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| Ben Ali remain "out of politics" as a condition for accepting him.<sup>[97]</sup>
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| == Initial impact of Ben Ali's overthrow ==
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| Tunisian soldiers serving as gendarmes
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| Following Ben Ali's departure from the country, a state of emergency was declared. Army Commander Rashid Ammar pledged to "protect the revolution".<sup>[98]</sup> Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi then briefly took over as acting president.<sup>[17][99]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>On the morning of 15 January, Tunisian state TV announced that Ben Ali
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| had officially resigned his position and Ghannouchi had handed over the
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| presidency to parliamentary speaker Fouad Mebazaa, with Ghannouchi returning to his previous position as prime minister.<sup>[100]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>This was done after the head of Tunisia's Constitutional Court, Fethi
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| Abdennadher, declared that Ghannouchi did not have right to power, and
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| confirmed Fouad Mebazaa as acting President under Article 57 of the constitution. Mebazaa was given 60 days to organise new elections.<sup>[101]</sup> Mebazaa said it was in the country's best interest to form a national unity government.<sup>[102]</sup>
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| INTERPOL
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>confirmed that its National Central Bureau (NCB) in Tunis had issued a
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| global alert to find and arrest Ben Ali and six of his relatives.<sup>[103]</sup>
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| A commission to reform the constitution and law in general was set up under Yadh Ben Achour.<sup>[104]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>There were also calls by the opposition to delay the elections, holding
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>them in six or seven months with international supervision.<sup>[105]</sup>
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| A Tunisian army tank deployed in front of the Cathedral of St. Vincent de Paul in Tunis
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| Following Ben Ali's departure, violence and looting continued<sup>[106]</sup> and the capital's main train station was torched.<sup>[106]</sup> The national army was reported to be extensively deployed in Tunisia,<sup>[106]</sup> including elements loyal to Ben Ali.<sup>[107]</sup>
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| A prison director in Mahdia freed about 1,000 inmates following a prison rebellion that left 5 people dead.<sup>[108]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>Many other prisons also had jailbreaks or raids from external groups to
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>force prisoner releases, some suspected to be aided by prison guards.
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| Residents who were running out of necessary food supplies had armed
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| themselves and barricaded their homes, and in some cases had formed
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| armed neighborhood watches. Al Jazeera's correspondent said there were
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| apparently three different armed groups: the police (numbering 250,000),
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>security forces from the Interior Ministry, and irregular militias
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| supportive of Ben Ali who were vying for control.<sup>[109]</sup>
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| Ali Seriati, head of presidential security, was arrested and
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| accused of threatening state security by fomenting violence. Following
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| this, gun battles took place near the Presidential Palace between the
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| Tunisian army and elements of security organs loyal to the former
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| regime.<sup>[110]</sup> The Tunisian army was reportedly struggling to assert control.<sup>[111]</sup> Gunfire continued in Tunis and Carthage as security services struggled to maintain law and order.<sup>[112]</sup>
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| The most immediate result of the protests was seen in increased Internet freedoms.<sup>[113]</sup> While commentators were divided about the extent to which the Internet contributed to the ousting of Ben Ali,<sup>[114][115]</sup> Facebook remained accessible to roughly 20% of the population throughout the crisis<sup>[115][116]</sup> whilst its passwords were hacked by a country-wide man-in-the-middle attack.<sup>[117]</sup> YouTube and DailyMotion became available after Ben Ali's ouster,<sup>[118]</sup> and the Tor anonymity network reported a surge of traffic from Tunisia.<sup>[119]</sup>
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| == Ghannouchi government ==
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| A protest by the General Labour Union
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| Anti-RCD graffiti and vandalism
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| The Ghannouchi administration (15 January – 27 February 2011) was a
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| caretaker government with the primary goal of maintaining the state and
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| providing a legal framework for new elections.
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| Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>announced his cabinet on 17 January 2011, three days after Ben Ali's
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| departure. The cabinet included twelve members of the ruling RCD, the
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| leaders of three opposition parties (Mustapha Ben Jafar from the Democratic Forum for Labour and Liberties [FTDL], Ahmed Brahim of the Ettajdid Movement, and Ahmed Najib Chebbi of the PDP),<sup>[120]</sup> three representatives from the Tunisian General Labour Union (UGTT), and representatives of civil society (including prominent blogger Slim Amamou). Three notable movements not included in the national unity government were the banned Ennahda Movement, the Tunisian Workers' Communist Party<sup>[121]</sup> and the secular reformist Congress for the Republic.<sup>[122]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>The following day, the three members of the UGTT and Ben Jafaar
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| resigned, saying that they had "no confidence" in a government featuring
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>members of the RCD.<sup>[123][124][125]</sup>
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| There were daily protests that members of Ben Ali's RCD party
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| were in the new government. Thousands of anti-RCD protesters rallied in a
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>protests with relatively little violence.<sup>[126]</sup> On 18 January, demonstrations were held in Tunis, Sfax, Gabes, Bizerta, Sousse and Monastir.<sup>[125]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>Ghannouchi and interim president Mebazaa resigned their RCD memberships
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>in a bid to calm protests, and Ghannouchi stated that all members of
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| the national unity government had "clean hands".<sup>[127]</sup>
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| On 20 January, Zouhair M'Dhaffer,
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>a close confidant of Ben Ali, resigned from the government. All other
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| RCD ministers resigned from the party and the central committee of the
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| RCD disbanded itself.<sup>[128][129]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>The new government announced in its first sitting that all political
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| prisoners would be freed and all banned parties would be legalised.<sup>[130]</sup> The next day, Ghannouchi committed to resigning after holding transparent and free elections within six months.<sup>[131]</sup>
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| Police began to join the protests in Tunis on 23 January over
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| salaries, and to deflect blame over political deaths attributed to them
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| during Ben Ali's rule.<sup>[132]</sup> Army chief Rachid Ammar declares that the armed forces are also on the side of the protesters and would "defend the revolution".<sup>[133]</sup>
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| On 27 January, Ghannounchi reshuffled his cabinet, with six
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| former-RCD members departing the interim government. Only Ghannouchi and
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>the ministers of industry and international cooperation (who had not
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| been RCD members) remained from Ben Ali's old government. This was seen
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| as meeting one of the protesters' demands,<sup>[134]</sup> and the UGTT stated its support for the reorganised cabinet.<sup>[135]</sup> New ministers included state attorney Farhat Rajhi as interior minister, retired career diplomat Ahmed Ounaies as foreign minister, and economist Elyes Jouini as minister delegate to the prime minister in charge of administrative and economic reform.<sup>[136]</sup> Ounaies later resigned after praising a foreign politician with ties to Ben Ali.<sup>[137]</sup> Mouldi Kefi became the new foreign minister on 21 February.<sup>[138]</sup>
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| By 3 February, all 24 regional governors had been replaced.<sup>[139]</sup> Days later, the government reached an agreement with the UGTT on the nomination of new governors.<sup>[140]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>The Interior Ministry replaced 34 top-level security officials who were
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>a part of Ben Ali's security infrastructure. Mebazaa promised a
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| national dialogue to address protester demands.<sup>[141]</sup>
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| Sidi Bouzid and El Kef saw violence in early February with protesters killed and a police car set on fire. A local police chief was arrested.<sup>[142]</sup>
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| On 7 February, the defense ministry called up soldiers discharged in the previous five years to help control unrest.<sup>[143]</sup>
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| The first steps were taken on a bill that would give Mebazaa
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| emergency powers, allowing him to bypass the RCD-dominated parliament.<sup>[144]</sup> The bill would allow Mebazaa to ratify international human-rights treaties without parliament;<sup>[145]</sup> he had previously stated that Tunisia would accede to the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, and the First and Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (which would mean abolishing the death penalty).<sup>[146]</sup>
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| Reports emerged on 18 February that Ben Ali had had a stroke and was gravely ill.<sup>[147]</sup> Plans for a general amnesty were also announced on that day.<sup>[148]</sup>
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| Protests flared on 19 February, with 40,000 protesters demanding a
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>new interim government completely free of association with the old
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| regime, and a parliamentary system of government replacing the current
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| presidential one.<sup>[149][150]</sup>
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| As a date was announced for an election in mid-July 2011, more than 100,000 protesters demanded the removal of Ghannouchi.<sup>[151]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>On 27 February, following a day of clashes in which five protesters
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| were killed, Ghannouchi resigned. He stated that he had carried his
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| responsibilities since Ben Ali fled, and "I am not ready to be the
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| person who takes decisions that would end up causing casualties. This
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| resignation will serve Tunisia, and the revolution and the future of
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| Tunisia."<sup>[152][153]</sup>
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| == Caid Essebsi government ==
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| Béji Caïd Essebsi became prime minister, appointed by Mebazaa on the day Ghannouchi resigned.<sup>[''citation needed'']</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>Although the cabinet was now free of RCD members, demonstrations
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| continued as the protesters criticized the unilateral appointment of
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| Essebsi without consultation.<sup>[''citation needed'']</sup>
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| Ghannouchi's resignation was followed the next day by the resignations of industry minister Afif Chelbi and international co-operation minister Mohamed Nouri Jouini.
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>There were now protests for the entire interim government to resign,
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| with the UGTT calling for an elected constituent assembly to write a new
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>constitution.<sup>[154]</sup> Further resignations were reported on 1 March: minister for higher education and scientific research Ahmed Brahim,<sup>[155]</sup> minister of local development Ahmed Nejib Chebbi, and minister of economic reform Elyes Jouini.<sup>[156]</sup>
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| Mebazaa announced elections to a Constituent Assembly would be held on 24 July 2011. This would likely postpone general elections to a later date.<sup>[157]</sup> This fulfilled a central demand of protesters.<sup>[158]</sup>
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| In early March, the interim government announced that the secret police would be dissolved.<sup>[159]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>A Tunis court announced the dissolution of the RCD and liquidation of
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| its assets, though the party said it would appeal the decision.<sup>[160]</sup>
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| In mid-April, charges were announced against Ben Ali, for whom international arrest warrants were issued in January.<sup>[161]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>There were 18 charges, including voluntary manslaughter and drug
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| trafficking. His family and former ministers faced 26 further charges.<sup>[162]</sup>
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| The elections were further postponed and ultimately held on 23 October 2011. The election appointed members to a Constituent Assembly charged with rewriting Tunisia's Constitution.<sup>[163]</sup> The formerly banned Islamic party Ennahda, which was legalised in March,<sup>[164]</sup> won with 41% of the total vote.<sup>[163]</sup>
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| | |
| == Effects ==
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| | |
| === Refugees ===
| |
| In mid-February 2011, about 4,000 mostly Tunisian refugees landed on the Italian island of Lampedusa, causing the authorities to declare a state of emergency<sup>[165]</sup> that would allow for federal aid to the island. Italian Interior Minister Roberto Maroni accused the EU of not doing enough to curb immigration and asked them to do more.<sup>[166]</sup>
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>He said that the "Tunisian system was collapsing" and that he would
| |
| "ask the Tunisian Foreign Ministry for permission for our authorities to
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| <nowiki> </nowiki>intervene to stop the flow in Tunisia", suggesting Italian troops would
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>be on Tunisian soil.<sup>[167]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>He called the event a "biblical exodus". The comments started a row
| |
| between the two countries with the Tunisian Foreign Ministry saying it
| |
| was ready to work with Italy and others but that it "categorically
| |
| rejects any interference in its internal affairs or any infringement of
| |
| its sovereignty." In response, Italy's Foreign Minister Franco Frattini
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>said that both countries share a "common interest" to halt the
| |
| immigration, while he also offered "logistical help in terms of police
| |
| and equipment" and called to re-establish previously successful coastal
| |
| patrols of Northern Africa. By 14 February, at least 2,000 refugees had
| |
| been sent to Sicily with the other 2,000 quarantined at a re-opened holding center.<sup>[168]</sup> On 2 March about 350 more people arrived on the island. In response, Italy declared a humanitarian emergency.<sup>[169]</sup>
| |
| | |
| The International Organisation for Migration said that no new boats had been spotted. The EU's Catherine Ashton was on a visit to Tunisia to discuss the issue.<sup>[''needs update'']</sup> German Chancellor Angela Merkel
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>said that "not everyone who does not want to be in Tunisia can come to
| |
| Europe. Rather, we need to talk to each other how we can strengthen the
| |
| rule of law in Tunisia again and whether Europe can be of help."<sup>[168]</sup>
| |
| | |
| === Stock market ===
| |
| The national stock market, the Bourse de Tunis (TUNINDEX), fell on 12 January for a three consecutive day loss of 9.3%.<sup>[170]</sup> Following the curfew in Tunis, the market index again fell 3.8% as the cost of protecting against a sovereign default in credit default swaps rose to its highest level in almost two years.<sup>[171][172]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Following the resignations of Ghanoucchi and two Ben Ali-era ministers, the bourse was again suspended.<sup>[173]</sup>
| |
| | |
| === International and non-state ===
| |
| Nantes, France, demonstration in support of the Tunisian protests
| |
| | |
| Main article: International reactions to the Tunisian revolution
| |
| | |
| Many governments and supranational organisations expressed concerns
| |
| over use of force against protesters. France, the former colonial power
| |
| of Tunisia, was one of just a few states that expressed strong support
| |
| for the Ben Ali government prior to its ouster, though protests were
| |
| held in solidarity with Tunisia in several French cities and the French Socialist Party voiced support for the popular revolution.
| |
| | |
| === Media and punditry ===
| |
| "The
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>rest will follow". Symbolic middle finger gesture representing the
| |
| Tunisian Revolution and its influences in the Arab world. From left to
| |
| right, the fingers are painted as flags of Libya, Egypt, Tunisia, Sudan and Algeria.
| |
| | |
| The lack of coverage in the domestic state-controlled media was criticised.<sup>[40]</sup> Writer/activist Jillian York alleged that the mainstream media,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>particularly in the Western world, was providing less coverage and less
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>sympathetic coverage to the Tunisia protests relative to Iranian
| |
| protests, the Green movement,
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and censorship in China. York alleged the "US government – which
| |
| intervened heavily in Iran, approving circumvention technology for
| |
| export and famously asking Twitter to halt updates during a critical
| |
| time period – has not made any public overtures toward Tunisia at this
| |
| time."<sup>[174]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Despite criticism about the "sparse" level of coverage and
| |
| "little interest" given to the demonstrations by the international
| |
| media, the protests were hailed by some commentators as "momentous
| |
| events" in Tunisian history.<sup>[175]</sup> Brian Whitaker, writing in ''The Guardian''
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>on 28 December 2010, suggested that the protests would be enough to
| |
| bring an end to Ben Ali's presidency and noted similarities with the protests that led to the end of Nicolae Ceauşescu's reign in Romania in 1989.<sup>[175]</sup> Steven Cook, writing for the Council of Foreign Relations, noted that a tipping point is only obvious after the fact, and pointed to the counter-example of the 2009–2010 Iranian election protests.<sup>[176]</sup> Ben Ali's governing strategy was nevertheless regarded as being in serious trouble,<sup>[12]</sup> and Elliot Abrams
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>noted both that demonstrators were able for the first time to defy the
| |
| security forces and that the regime had no obvious successors to Ben Ali
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>and his family.<sup>[177]</sup>
| |
| French management of the crisis came under severe criticism,<sup>[178]</sup> with notable silence in the mainstream media in the run-up to the crisis.<sup>[179]</sup>
| |
| | |
| The revolt in Tunisia began speculation that the Tunisian Jasmine
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Revolution would lead to protests against the multiple other autocratic
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>regimes across the Arab world. This was most famously captured in the phrase asking whether "Tunisia is the Arab Gdańsk?". The allusion refers to the Polish Solidarity movement and Gdańsk's role as the birthplace of the movement that ousted Communism in Eastern Europe. The phrase appeared in outlets such as the BBC,<sup>[181]</sup> as well as editorials by columnists Rami Khouri<sup>[182]</sup> and Roger Cohen.<sup>[183]</sup>
| |
| | |
| Larbi Sadiki
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>suggested that although "conventional wisdom has it that 'terror' in
| |
| the Arab world is monopolised by al-Qaeda in its various incarnations",
| |
| there was also the fact that "regimes in countries like Tunisia and
| |
| Algeria have been arming and training security apparatuses to fight
| |
| Osama bin Laden [but] were [still] caught unawares by the 'bin Laden
| |
| within': the terror of marginalisation for the millions of educated
| |
| youth who make up a large portion of the region's population. The winds
| |
| of uncertainty blowing in the Arab west – the Maghreb – threaten to blow eastwards towards the Levant as the marginalised issue the fatalistic scream of despair to be given freedom and bread or death."<sup>[184]</sup> A similar opinion by Lamis Ardoni
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>carried by Al Jazeera said that the protests had "brought down the
| |
| walls of fear, erected by repression and marginalization, thus restoring
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>the Arab peoples' faith in their ability to demand social justice and
| |
| end tyranny." He also said that the protests that succeeded in toppling
| |
| the leadership should serve as a "warning to all leaders, whether
| |
| supported by international or regional powers, that they are no longer
| |
| immune to popular outcries of fury" even though Tunisia's ostensible
| |
| change "could still be contained or confiscated by the country's ruling
| |
| elite, which is desperately clinging to power." He called the protests
| |
| the "Tunisian intifada"
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>which had "placed the Arab world at a crossroads". He further added
| |
| that if the change was ultimately successful in Tunisia it could "push
| |
| the door wide open to freedom in Arab world. If it suffers a setback we
| |
| shall witness unprecedented repression by rulers struggling to maintain
| |
| their absolute grip on power. Either way, a system that combined a
| |
| starkly unequal distribution of wealth with the denial of freedoms has
| |
| collapsed."<sup>[185]</sup>
| |
| | |
| === Impact of the Internet ===
| |
| Further information: Internet § Politics and political revolutions
| |
| | |
| The use of communication technologies, and the Internet in
| |
| particular, has been widely credited as a contributor to the
| |
| mobilisation of protests.<sup>[189]</sup> A blog associated with ''Wired'' described the intricate efforts of the Tunisian authorities to control such online media as<sup>[190]</sup> Twitter and Facebook. Other regional regimes were also on higher alert to contain spillover effects that might have ensued.
| |
| | |
| On 11 March 2011, Reporters Without Borders gave its annual award for online media freedom to the Tunisian blogging group Nawaat.org.
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>Founded in 2004, it played an important role for rallying
| |
| anti-government protesters by reporting on the protests which the
| |
| national media ignored.<sup>[191]</sup>
| |
| | |
| After the beginning of the uprising in Tunisia, similar protests took place in almost all Arab countries from Morocco to Iraq, as well as in other states, ranging from Gabon to Albania, Iran, Kazakhstan, United States, India and others. Following weeks of protests, Egyptian president Hosni Mubarak resigned on 11 February. Major protests against longtime Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi broke out on 17 February and quickly deteriorated into civil war, ultimately resulting in the downfall of the Gaddafi regime later in the year. Syria experienced a major uprising of people calling for the removal of President Bashar al-Assad. The Syrian uprising also deteriorated into a civil war, giving rise to the militant group, ISIS, and partly causing the current refugee crisis. In addition, Yemen, Bahrain, and Algeria have seen major protests.
| |
| | |
| However, a financial analyst in Dubai suggested that "the spillover effect of the political turbulence to the large countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council is non-existent as there are no similar drivers."<sup>[193]</sup>
| |
| | |
| == Aftermath ==
| |
| In mid-May 2013, Tunisia banned the Salafist Ansar al-Sharia
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>from carrying out party congresses. The day after the congress was due
| |
| to be carried out, clashes between security forces and party supporters
| |
| in Kairouan resulted in one death amid attempts to disperse those who wanted to carry out the events.<sup>[194]</sup>
| |
| | |
| The Tunisian president, Beji Caid Essebsi, renewed the state of
| |
| emergency in October 2015 for three months due to previous terror
| |
| attacks.<sup>[195]</sup>
| |
| <nowiki> </nowiki>In August 2019, the United States aided Tunisia with $335 million that
| |
| will be given in five years to support its democratic transition and
| |
| help in funding projects and initiatives that would develop the country.<sup>[196]</sup>
| |
